To which third countries does the US deport migrants, and how does the system work?

As part of its mass deportation program, the Trump administration is focusing on expelling certain undocumented immigrants to third countries. To this end, the US is negotiating deportation agreements around the world, writes Migration Policy.

The administration has entered into third-country deportation agreements with governments ranging from small island nations like Palau to conflict-ridden countries like South Sudan.

In its first term, the Trump administration tested the concept by signing agreements with three governments in northern Central America.

On the subject: A Ukrainian man legally in the United States was detained in Texas and faces deportation.

Since the beginning of Trump's second term, US officials have reached deportation agreements with nearly 30 countries, in some cases under duress, and plan to reach out to at least 54 more. Unlike the agreements of the first term, which were aimed at deterring asylum seekers at the US-Mexico border, the new agreements have now become a key part of the White House's domestic law enforcement agenda.

The number of people deported under these agreements currently represents only a small fraction of the total number of deportations carried out by the Trump administration. This is because, with the exception of Mexico, most countries have agreed to accept a maximum of a few hundred deportees. According to the Migration Policy Institute (MPI), approximately 15,000 deportations to third countries (13,000 of which were to Mexico) occurred between January 20, 2025, and December 31, 2025. This is a tiny fraction of the 1 million deportations per year that the administration has stated as its goal.

As a result, the focus on expanding deportations to third countries appears to be less about achieving quantitative targets and more about frightening migrants into self-deportation, lest they be sent to unfamiliar places like Ecuador or Uzbekistan.

Conditions for deportation to a third country under US law

Current US law requires several steps to deport immigrants to a country other than their country of birth. The receiving government must provide "reasonable credible assurances" that deportees will not be subjected to persecution or torture and will not be sent to another country where this might occur. Then, the signatory governments must agree on and specify the categories of people (e.g., single adults, certain nationalities, convicted criminals) that the receiving country is willing to accept and the conditions under which it may do so. For example, the government of Guatemala has agreed to accept only deportees from Central America.

There is no single model for the 27 existing agreements, which are difficult to evaluate because, in most cases, their texts have not been made public by either the US or other governments. In some cases, governments have provided only general outlines of the agreements, while in others, it is not even clear what the US is offering in exchange.

«Safe Third Country Agreement or not?

Some of these agreements are considered "safe third country agreements" under U.S. law and apply to individuals seeking asylum in the United States. Under such agreements, the U.S. government must determine not only that deportees will not be subject to persecution in the receiving country but also that they will have "access to a full and fair process" to apply for asylum or other equivalent protection.

Canada and the United States signed the first Safe Third Country Agreement in 2002; it remains in effect today (with minor modifications). There were no others until 2019, when, during the first term of the Trump administration, "Asylum Cooperation Agreements" were signed with Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, which were considered equivalent to Safe Third Country Agreements. Of the three agreements, only one—the Guatemalan one—was implemented. All three were suspended by the Biden administration in 2021.

Most of today's agreements are not safe third country agreements.

Agreements range from verbal agreements to diplomatic notes and formal agreements published in the Federal Register.

However, they can be divided into four broad categories:

Safe Third Country/Asylum Cooperation AgreementsAs defined above, the Trump administration considers them equivalent. For example, Ecuador has agreed to accept up to 300 asylum seekers from the United States per year and provide them with the opportunity to seek protection.

Bridge Agreements for DeportationThe receiving government undertakes to hold deportees (sometimes in a detention center) without access to asylum procedures while negotiations for their removal to their country of origin or another country are underway. This type of arrangement is most notable in Panama, which last year agreed to accept nearly 300 deportees, primarily from Asian countries, initially housing them in a city hotel and then transferring some to a shelter near the Darien jungle.

Incarceration AgreementsA foreign government agrees to detain deportees sent from the United States (likely without a criminal conviction in the receiving country) without access to protection. This was the case when El Salvador agreed to accept more than 200 Venezuelans accused by the Trump administration of belonging to the transnational gang Tren de Aragua and imprison them in a maximum-security prison.

Hybrid agreements: Under these arrangements, the receiving government may agree to a combination of elements from different types of agreements, such as allowing some deportees to remain in the country without guaranteed access to protection or permanent status, while returning others to their country of origin. Under the agreement, initially negotiated by the Biden administration and continued (possibly expanded) under the Trump administration, Mexico accepts deportees at ports of entry along the US-Mexico border and transports them to southern Mexico. However, it does not provide them with the protection or legal status necessary for their stay and access to basic services. So far, under the Trump administration, the majority of deportees to Mexico have been approximately 6000 Cubans.

Lack of detail around new US foreign policy priority

The secrecy of negotiations between the Trump administration and foreign governments, as well as the varying levels of formality of the agreements, have sparked significant controversy and lawsuits abroad. Generally, governments enter into these agreements to avoid US tariffs or visa cancellations, and in some cases, to continue receiving US humanitarian aid.

However, governments entering into such agreements often lack the infrastructure and resources to receive and reintegrate even their own returning citizens, let alone those of other countries. While some agreements include U.S. funding to cover the costs of deportees' detention or their subsequent deportation (for example, the Trump administration pledged to pay Rwanda $7,5 million and Eswatini $5,1 million), most do not provide receiving governments with direct funding to strengthen asylum systems or provide essential services to deportees.

Due to the apparent lack of fully worked out details in some agreements, receiving governments sometimes did not understand their responsibilities, and deportees found themselves in a legal vacuum thousands of miles from the United States.

Here are the countries with which the US has already entered into agreements:

• Belize
• Liberia
• Paraguay
• Uganda
• Palau
• Southern Sudan
• Mexico
• Ecuador
• Esvatini
• Uzbekistan
• Guatemala
• Honduras
• Salvador
• Panama
• Rwanda
• Costa Rica
• Ghana
• Poland
• Barbados
• Canada
• Cameroun
• Dominican Republic
• Equatorial Guinea
• Guyana
• Kosovo
• Libya
• Saint Kitts and Nevis
• St. Lucia

PBS News reported on April 5 that the United States had concluded another similar agreement with Congo on the deportation of migrants to third countries.

Deportees will begin arriving in Congo this month, according to a statement from the Congolese Ministry of Communications. No further details were provided regarding the date or the expected number of deportees.

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The United States will cover all necessary logistical costs. The United States has concluded similar deportation agreements with at least seven other African countries.

Advocates and activists are raising questions about the nature of these deals with countries in Africa and elsewhere. Several African countries that have signed such agreements are known for their repressive governments and poor human rights records, including Eswatini, South Sudan, and Equatorial Guinea.

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